Phillips, John A., and Charles Wetherell. Wales did not lose any of its existing borough representatives because with the exception of Beaumaris and Montgomery these members represented groups of towns rather than an individual town. - France joins Quadruple alliance & becomes Quintuple Alliance; -Castleragh rejects Alexander's proposal that great powers support exisisting governments in Europe. 50, 369, 380.
[8] Finally, the parliamentarians of the 17th century compounded the inconsistencies by re-enfranchising 15 boroughs whose representation had lapsed for centuries, seven of which were later disenfranchised by the Reform Act. These reforms were all reversed, however, after Cromwell's death and the last parliament to be elected in the Commonwealth period in 1659 reverted to the electoral system as it had existed under Charles I.[29]. The Reform Act's chief objective was the reduction of the number of nomination boroughs. Instead, they modified the proposal so that two further seats were given to Yorkshire, the county in which Leeds is situated. There may be a few instances where a term will fit under more than one column. In response, disenchanted ultra-Tories who perceived a danger to the established religion came to favour parliamentary reform, in particular the enfranchisement of Manchester, Leeds, and other heavily Nonconformist cities in northern England.
"English Rural and Urban Disturbances on the Eve of the First Reform Bill, 1830–1831". believed that property was theft stolen from the worker (unlike most socialists Proudhon feared the power of the state), The message of French utopian socialists interacted with the experiences of French urban workers (opposed laissez-faire laws; socialist movement in 1830s and 1840s), Karl Marx was an atheistic who was influenced by the French socialist thought, Early French socialists often appealed to the middle class and the state to help the poor but Marx thought such appeals were naïve and argued that the interests of the middle class and those of the working class were inevitably opposed to each other, In 1848, Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) published the Communist Manifesto, which became the bible of socialism, In Marx’s view, one class had always exploited the other and with the advent of modern industry, society was split even more now (bourgeoisie and proletariat), Marx predicted the proletariat would conquer the bourgeoisie in a revolution as the poorer proletariat was constantly growing in size and class consciousness, Communist Manifesto ends with “Working Men of All Countries, Unite!”, Marx united sociology, economics, and human history in a vast and imposing edifice, Marx, following Ricardo, argued that profits were really wages stolen from the workers and incorporated Engels’s charges of oppression of the new factory workers, Marx’s theory of historical evolution was built on the philosophy of the German Georg Hegel who believed that history was “ideas in motion”: each age is characterized by a dominant set of ideas, which produces a synthesis, Marx retained Hegel’s view of history as a dialectic process of change but made economic relationships between classes the driving force; Marx believed it was the bourgeoisie’s turn to give way to the socialism of revolutionary workers (secular), The romantic movement was in part a revolt against classicism and the Enlightenment, Romanticism was characterized by belief in emotions, unrestrained imagination, and spontaneity in both art and personal life (“Storm and Stress” 1770-80s in Germany), Romantics lived lives of tremendous emotional intensity (suicides and strange illnesses common); many led bohemian lives, wearing hair long and uncombed, Romantic artists rejected materialism and wanted to escape to lofty spiritual heights through their art (full development of one’s unique human potential), Romantics driven by yearning for the unattained, unknown, and unknowable, Romanticism’s general conception of nature totally different of classicism, Nature was portrayed by classicists as beautiful and chaste (like formal garden), The romantics were enchanted by nature, seeing it as awesome and tempestuous and others saw nature as a source of spiritual inspiration, Most romantics saw the growth of modern industry as an attack on their beloved nature and human personality and sought escape to “unspoiled” lands, Some romantics found awesome moving power in the new industrial landscape, Fascinated by color and diversity, the romantic imagination turned toward the study of history with a passion (history was beautiful and important in its own right), History was believed to by the art of change over time (organic and dynamic), Historical studies supported the development of national aspirations and encourage entire peoples to seek in the past their special destinies (European thought), Britain was the first country where romanticism flowered fully in poetry and prose and the British romantic writers were among the most prominent in Europe, Romanticism found its distinctive voice in poetry, as the Enlightenment had in prose, William Wordsworth was the leader of English romanticism and was influenced by the philosophy of Rousseau and the spirit of the early French Revolution, Wordsworth and Coleridge published Lyrical Ballads, one of the most influential literary works in the history of English language (language of ordinary speech), Wordsworth’s romantic conviction that nature has power to elevate and instruct, Walter Scott personified the romantic movement’s fascination with history; he was influenced by German romanticism, particularly by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, The strength of classicism in France inhibited the growth of romanticism there at first but between 1820 and 1850 the romantic impulse broke through in poetry and prose, Victor Hugo was the greatest in both poetry and prose in France, Hugo achieved an amazing range of rhythm, language, and image in his lyric poetry, Powerful novels exemplified the romantic fascination with fantastic characters, In his play Hernani, Hugo renounced his early conservatism and equated freedom in literature with liberty in politics and society (broke all the old rules), Amandine Dupin, known as George Sand, defied the narrow conventions of her time in an unending search for self-fulfillment (romantic love of nature, moral idealism), In central and eastern Europe, literary romanticism and early nationalism often reinforced each other and romantics plumbed their own histories and cultures, The greatest and most moving romantic painter in France was Eugene Delacroix who was a master of dramatic, colorful scenes that stirred the emotions (Liberty Leading the People celebrated the nobility of popular revolution in general and revolution), The most notable romantic painters in England was Joseph M. W. Turner and John Constable and both were fascinated by nature; while Turner depicted nature’s power and terror, Constable painted landscapes in which humans were with environment, Great romantics transformed the classical orchestra and gave range and intensity to music (achieved the most ecstatic effect and realized endless yearning of the soul), The composer Franz Liszt vowed to do for the piano what Nicolo Paganini, Ludwig can Beethoven used contrasting themes and tones to produce dramatic conflict and inspiring resolutions and his range was tremendous (richness and beauty), National, liberal revolution succeeded in Greece after 1815 (had been under control by the Ottoman Turks since the fifteenth century; united under language and religion), The rising national movement led to the formation of secret societies and then to revolt in 1821, led by Alexander Ypsilanti, Greek patriot and general in Russian army, The Great Powers were opposed to all revolution and refused to back Ypsilanti, Educated Europeans were in love with the culture of classical Greece, Russians were stirred by the piety of the Greek Orthodox brethren, Writers and artists, moved by romantic impulse, responded to the Greek struggle, In 1827 Great Britain, France, and Russia responded to popular demands and directed Turkey to accept an armistice but when Turkey refused, navies defeated the Turkish fleet and Russia established a protectorate over land that had been under Turkish rule, Russia finally declared Greece independent in 1830 and installed a German prince as king of the new country in 1832 (nation had gained independence against empire), Eighteenth-century British society was dominated by the landowning aristocracy, The Tory party, controlled by landed aristocracy, was fearful of radical movements and the same intense conservatism motivated the Tory government (balance), After 1815 the aristocracy defended its ruling position by repressing popular protest, In 1815, they began with the Corn Laws, which had regulated the foreign grain trade before (shortages of grain had occurred and agricultural prices skyrocketed but peace meant that grain could be imported again and prices went down), The new regulation prohibited the importation of foreign grain unless the price at home rose above 80 shillings per quarter (class-based interpretation), The Corn Laws led to protests and demonstrations by urban laborers and were supported by radical thinkers who campaigned for a reformed House of Commons, In 1817, government responded by temporarily suspending the rights of peaceable assembly and habeas corpus; two years later, Parliament passed the Six Acts controlling heavily taxed press and practically eliminated all mass meetings, These acts followed an orderly protest at Saint Peter’s Fields (‘Battle of Peterloo’), Ongoing industrial development strengthened the upper middle class, In the 1820s the Tory government moved in the direction of better urban direction, greater economic liberalism, and civil equality of Catholics (heavy tariff), The Whig party introduced an act to amend the representation of people, The Reform Bill of 1832 allowed the House of Commons to emerge as the all-important legislative body and new industrial areas of the country gained representation in the Commons and electoral districts were eliminated, As a result, the number of voters increased by about 50 percent, giving about 12 percent of the total population the right to vote, The principal radical program was embodied in the “People’s Charter” of 1838 and Chartist movement (core demand was universal male suffrage, not female suffrage), Parliament rejected petitions for male suffrage and many working-class people joined with middle-class manufacturers in the Anti-Corn Law League (1839), The climax of the movement came in 1845, the year of the Ireland’s famine and to avert catastrophe Robert Peel and the Whigs repealed the Corn Laws in 1846, In 1847, the Tories passed the Ten Hours Act of 1847, which limited the workday for women and young people in factories to ten hours and healthy competition between the aristocracy and strong middle class was a factor in the peaceful evolution, Exploited and growing in numbers, Irish peasants had come to depend on the potato crop and its economy was a subsistence economy, which lacked network of trade, Potato crop failure in 1846, 1848, and 1851 caused the Great Famine and widespread starvation and mass fever epidemics followed (many immigrants died or fled), Louis XVIII’s Constitutional Charter of 1814 was basically a liberal constitution, Louis appointed moderate royalists his ministers who sought to obtain the support of a majority of the representations elected to the lower Chamber of Deputies, Louis’s charter allowed only about 100,000 of the wealthiest people to vote for deputies, who with the king and his ministers, made the laws of the nation, Charles X, Louis’s successor, wanted to re-establish the old order in France, Charles repudiated the Constitutional Charter in 1830, issued decrees stripping much of the wealthy middle class of its voting rights and censored the press, The immediate reaction was an insurrection in capital by printers and in “three glorious days,” the government collapsed and the upper middle class skillfully seated Charles’s cousin, Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans on the vacant throne, Louis Philippe accepted the Constitutional Charter of 1814 and was merely “king”, The wealthy notable elite actually tightened its control as the old aristocracy retreated, For the upper middle class, there had been a change in dynasty in order to protect the status quo and narrowly liberal institutions of 1815, Pre-Revolutionary” outbreaks occurred all across Europe (revolution in Paris), Louis Philippe’s “bourgeois monarchy” was characterized by stubborn inaction, Lack of social, legislation, and politics was dominated by corruption, The king’s chief minister in the 1840s, Francois Guizot, was personified and satisfied with the electoral system were only rich could vote for deputies, Barricades went up on the night of February 22, 1848 and by February 24, Louis Philippe had abdicated in favor of his grandson but refusal led to the proclamation of a provisional republic, headed by a ten-man executive committee supported by public, A generation of writers had praised the First French Republic and revolutionaries were firmly committed to a republic as opposed to any form of constitutional monarchy and they immediately set about drafting a constitution for France’s Second, Government truly wanted the forces of the common people (could reform society), Revolutionary compassion and sympathy for freedom were expressed in the freeing of all slaves in French colonies, the abolition of the death penalty, and the establishment of a ten-hour workday for workers in Paris, The revolutionary coalition were the moderate, liberal republicans of the middle class, They viewed universal male suffrage as the ultimate concession; but they opposed any further radical social measures but on the other hand, were radical republicans, The radical republicans were committed to socialism (various degrees), Worsening depression and rising unemployment raised issues, Louis Blanc represented the republican socialists in the provincial government, Blanc argued for permanent government-sponsored cooperative workshops, Moderate republicans were willing to provide only temporary relief and the resulting compromise set up national workshops and established a special commission under Blanc to “study the question” (nobody satisfied), French masses went to election polls and the people elected to the new Constituent Assembly 500 moderate republics, 300 monarchists, and 100 radicals—socialists, This socialist revolution was a violent reaction among the peasants and according to Alex de Tocqueville (Democracy in America) the peasants were bond with land, The clash of ideologies of liberal capitalism and socialism became a clash of classes, The government’s executive committee dropped Blanc and included no representative of the Parisian working class (workers invaded Constituent Assembly on May 15 and tried to proclaim a new revolutionary state), On June 22, the government dissolved the national workshops in Paris, giving the workers the choice of joining the army or going to workshops in the provinces, The result was a spontaneous and violent uprising and barricades sprang up, Class war had begun and working people fought with the courage of utter desperation but the government had the army and the support of peasant France, After three terrible “June Days” and the republican army stood triumphant, In place of a generous democratic republic, the Constituent Assembly completed a constitution featuring a strong executive; allowed Louis Napoleon to win election, News of the upheaval in France evoked liberals to demand written constitutions, representative government, and greater civil liberties from authoritarian regimes; monarchs collapsed after popular revolts but traditional forces recovered and reasserted their authority and reaction was everywhere victorious, The revolution in the Austrian Empire began in Hungary and in 1848, under the leadership of Louis Kossuth, the Hungarians demanded national autonomy, full civil liberties, and universal suffrage but the monarchy in Vienna hesitated, Viennese students and workers took to the streets on March 13 and added their own demands and the Habsburg emperor Ferdinand I capitulated and promised reforms and a liberal constitution (Metternich fled to London), On March 20, the monarchy abolished serfdom and newly free men and women of the land then lost interest in the political and social questions in the urban areas, The Hungarian revolutionaries were also nationalists and wanted the ancient Crown of Saint Stephen transformed into a unified, centralized, Hungarian nation; the Habsburg monarchy exploited the fears of the minority groups and locked in combat, Czech nationalists based in Bohemia, led by Czech historian Palacky, came into conflict with German nationalists and saw their struggle for autonomy as a struggle against a dominant group and peoples of the empire came into sharp conflict, Throughout Austrian and the German states the middle class wanted liberal reform complete with constitutional monarchy limited voting rights, and social measures, When the urban poor rose in arms presenting their own demands for socialist workshops and universal male suffrage, the middle classes recoiled in alarm, Conservative aristocratic forces gathered around Emperor Ferdinand I, who was encouraged by the archduchess Sophia to abdicate in favor of her son Francis Joseph, Prince Alfred Windischgratz bombarded Prague and crushed a working class revolt in Prague on June 17; Austrian armies reconquered Austria’s possessions, At the end of October, the Austrian army attacked the student and working-class radicals in Vienna and retook the city (Austrian aristocracy and loyalty of army), Francis Joseph was crowned emperor of Austria in December 1848 and Nicolas I of Russia let 130,000 Russian troops; on June 6, 1849, the army subdued the country, Prior to 1848, the goal of middle-class Prussian liberals had been to transform absolutist Prussia into a liberal constitution (then merging German states into nation), After the fall of Louis Philippe, Prussian liberals pressed for the creation of liberal constitutional monarchy and the artisans and factory workers exploded, Frederick William IV hesitated and on March 21, he promised to grant Prussia a liberal constitution and to merge it into a new national German state to be created, Urban workers wanted a more radical revolution and the Prussian aristocracy wanted no revolution at all and joined the conservative group to urge a counter-reformation, A self-appointed group of liberals from various states met for the first time on May 18 in Frankfurt to write a federal constitution for a unified German state, The Frankfurt National Assembly was absorbed with the issue of the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein (provinces in Germany but ruled by the king of Denmark), When Frederick VII, the new king of Denmark tried to integrate both of these provinces, the Germans there revolted (called on Prussian army to help), In March 1849 the National Assembly completed its draft constitution and elected Frederick William of Prussia the new emperor of the German national state, Frederick William rejected the National Assembly and retook control of the state, Chapter 13: European Society in the Age of the Renaissance, Chapter 14: Reform and Renewal in the Christian Church, Chapter 15: The Age of European Expansion and Religious Wars, Chapter 16: Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Western Europe, Chapter 17: Absolutism in Eastern Europe to 1740, Chapter 19: The Expansion of Europe in the Eighteenth Century, Chapter 21: The Revolution in Politics (1775-1815), Chapter 22: The Revolution in Energy and Industry, Chapter 24: Life in the Changing Urban Society, Chapter 27: The Great Break: War and Revolution, Chapter 29: Dictatorships and the Second World War, Chapter 30: Cold War Conflicts and Social Transformations, 1945-1985, Chapter 31: Revolution, Rebuilding, and New Challenges: 1985 to the Present.
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